Modern research
Unravelling the origins of mummification
Jana Jones, Egyptologist, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
New excavations and modern research methods are rewriting what we know about the origins of Egyptian mummification. The traditional view was that it began with the preservation of Old Kingdom royals about 2600 BCE and developed from the observation of bodies that had been naturally preserved in hot desert sands. It was also believed that resin was not used in the embalming process until about 2000 BCE.
The latest evidence, though, is intriguing. It has shown that artificial mummification and the use of resin began much earlier than the Old Kingdom. Recent excavations of 'working class' burials at Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt (dating to 3500 BCE) by the Hierakonpolis Expedition, under the direction of Dr Renée Friedman, show that a variety of complex burial practices were occurring at this time, including extracting the internal organs in a ritual fashion and wrapping specific parts of the body. I examined textile remains from these excavations and found that some of these bodies were wrapped in layers of fine linen bandages which were treated with resinous substances. I also examined wrappings from other sites and found that similar procedures were already taking place at least 500 years earlier, about 4000 BCE.
Badarian yarn, Mostagedda, about 4000 BCE
This is flax yarn, heavily soaked with resin, from a linen shroud found in a grave at one of the earliest Predynastic cemeteries. Enlarged approximately 230x. Photomicrograph © Ron Oldfield, Macquarie University
Burial 85, Hierakonpolis, about 3500 BCE
This body of a young woman was discovered underneath layers of matting and the remains of a linen shroud. She had thick layers of resin-soaked linen applied to the base of her skull, jaw, chin, and hands. Photo © Renée Friedman, The Hierakonpolis Expedition
Death, diseases and ancient DNA
Dr Karin Sowada, Assistant Curator, Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney, Australia
Professor Mark Spigelman, Hadassah Medical School, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
Professor Allan Spigelman, Newcastle Medical School, University of Newcastle, Australia
When ancient embalmers preserved the bodies of the dead, they also preserved fragments of the bodies' DNA as well as the DNA of any microorganisms such as bacteria or parasites that were in the bodies. By studying these different types of DNA, we are able to construct a more accurate genetic picture of the person, look for diseases that may have afflicted them in life and identify possible causes of death.
We are studying the mummy of Padiashaikhet as part of our ongoing Nicholson Museum Egyptian Mummy Project at the University of Sydney. CT (Computerised Tomography) scans revealed that he had severe dental abscesses, suggesting that he may have died from blood poisoning caused by this condition. We also tested him for tuberculosis and hepatitis B. Although he carried no evidence of these diseases, they, along with others such as malaria, have been found in other ancient human remains. These discoveries have opened up a whole new field in mummy research that could save the lives of millions - understanding the origins of modern diseases and developing better treatments for people suffering from them today.
CT scan of Padiashaikhet's abdomen showing traces of linen packing in the body cavity.
Image courtesy of the Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney
CT scan of Padiashaikhet showing the position of the body within the wrappings.
Image courtesy of the Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney
CT scan of Padiashaikhet's skull showing a dental abscess on the mandible (lower jaw).
Image courtesy of the Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney
CT scan of Padiashaikhet's abdomen showing the embalming incision plugged with linen.
Image courtesy of the Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney
Insights into an industry
Dr Maarten Raven and Dr Wybren K Taconis, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden, The Netherlands
Technology provides us with surprising insights into the practices associated with animal offerings. Creating mummified animals for purchase as offerings to the gods was a thriving industry in later periods but perhaps not always an honest one. From x-rays we have found that numerous animals had broken necks or battered skulls, indicating they were deliberately killed to be mummified. Although the animals were usually wrapped with care, not many were properly preserved. Some 'mummies' were sold containing either incomplete remains or only mud and straw. This could mean that some buyers were being deliberately deceived or that the religious significance of these mummies was related to the way they looked, rather than their contents.
Side view x-ray of an ibis mummy.
This x-ray shows that the majority of this 'mummy' is filled with a gritty material. The head end contains a few unidentified long bones. © National Museum of Antiquities, the Netherlands
Side view x-ray of a cat mummy.
This x-ray shows the skeleton of a juvenile cat with dislocations and breaks in the neck vertebrae. © National Museum of Antiquities, the Netherlands
Top view x-ray of a crocodile mummy.
Only the front part of this juvenile crocodile has been mummified. © National Museum of Antiquities, the Netherlands
